Turkic sound changes

Also see Turkic Sonority Constraints#Words that changed due to sonority

proto-Altaic to pre-proto-Turkic:

• ʒ, dʒ, d?, n? > j / #_ (?)

pre-proto-Turkic to proto-Turkic:

• no n, m, ŋ, l, r, z, š / #_
• p > ɸ > h / #_
• lenis/fortis merger
  • g > k
  • d > t
• sʲ → š / #_
• rʲ → z
• nʲ → nʲ
• j, dʲ, nʲ → j / #_

proto-Turkic to Sakha

• aa > aa (qaan > xaan "khan", aaç > aas "open", taaş > taas "stone")
• ėė / ee > ie (kėėçe > kiehe "night", keep > kiep "kip, şekil", bėėr- > bier- "give", yėė- > sie- "eat", yėėl > siel "rüzgâr")
• ıı > ıı (ııð > ııt, tııð > tııt- kıız > qııs, qıın > kıın)
• ii > ii (biir > biir, tiiş > tiis, kiir- > kiir- "enter", iil > iil)
• oo > uo (bool- > buol- "be", yool > suol "road", yook > suox "not", oon > uon "ten")
• öö > üö (söök- > üöx- "swear", öögren- > üören- "learn", köök > küök "sky", töört > tüört "four")
• uu > uu (suun- > uun- "sunmak", uur- > uur- "vurmak", buuz > buus (muus) "ice", suub > uu "water")
• üü > üü (küüð- > küüt- "wait", süüt > üüt "milk", küüç > küüs "strength", yüüz > süüs "100")
• ağ / ab > ıa (tağ > tıa "forest", yağ > sıa, ağrığ > ıarıı "ağrı", yaðağ > satı "yayan")
• ağı > ıa (bağır > bıar, sağız > ıas)
• ağu > uo (ağuz > uosax "fresh milk", ağız > uos "lip")
• oğ / ob > uo (toburğaq > tuorax "toprak", oğul > uol "son", boğuz > buos "boğaz")
• uğ / ub > uu (uruğ > uruu "nesil, soy", sub > uu "water")
• iğ > ıı [> ii] (sarığ > arıı "fat", ağrığ > ıarıı, qıðığ > kıtıı "kıyı", kığ > kıı > kii "pislik, gübre")
• eg > ie (tegir- > tier "çevirmek, döndürmek", yegen > sien "yeğen")
• eg > ii / iy (beg > bii, teg- > tiy- "touch")
• ög > öö (tögen > tüön "döven")
• üg > üü (yügen > ügün > üün "dizgin", tüg > tüü (tüy), külüg > külüü "famous")
• ig > ii (elig > ilii "hand", tirilig > tirlig > tillii "living", sigik (<sigdik)> iik "sidik")

Old Turkic phonology

Old Turkic has nine vowel qualities—a /a/, e /æ/, ė /e/, i /i/, ï /ɯ/, o /o/, ö /ø/, u /u/, ü /y/—distinct only in the first syllable of a word, collapsed into four classes elsewhere—a, e, ï, i.

The consonantal system distinguishes between unvoiced, voiced (with fricative variants) and nasal:

labial: p, v (β), m;

dental: t, d (δ), n;

palatal: č, y, ń;

velar: k (q, χ), g (γ), ŋ;

sibilant: s, š, z;

liquid: r, l.

General Persian Phonology

This should be here too, since early Kypchak saw the beginnings of heavy borrowings

proto-Turkic to proto-Kypchak:

Shared with Old Turkic

• V̆ > ∅
• h > ∅ / #_

Not shared with Old Turkic

• nʲ > j
• b > m / #_…n
• G > K / _#
• d > t / _#
• d > t / #_ (kind of, since most later borrowings did this, but later ones from Mongolic, esp. in Kazakh; proto-Tc didn't have #d)
• V > [-rd] / []σ_
• b > v / V _
• v > w
• gm > mg
• rg > rg
• rd > dr (sometimes? just Kazakh?)
• Vg/b/d changes:
  • aG > aw
  • ub > uw
  • ɯG > ɯw
  • oG > uw
  • eb/æb > yj
  • øg > øj
  • ød > øj
  • (d > ð > j / V_)
• æ > e (more æ added by Persian loans)
• s > tʃ / _Vtʃ
• a > æ / _ X V[-back]
• f > w / V _
• f > p
• ŋ > g / σ[_

proto-Kypchak to Kazakh:

Shared with Nogay and Karakalpak, known, inclusive

• ʃ > s
• tʃ > ʃ
• j > dʒ / #_ (not Qara Nogay)
• dʒ > ʒ (not Qara Nogay or Central Nogay)
• ɯw > ɯ / _# (not when morpheme boundary between; i.e., never with -(u)w)

Remainder

• æ > e / #[]σ_
• æ > a / _{x,q}
• æw > ew (?)
• mg > ŋb
• rd > jr
• ʕ > G
• f > w / _]σ
• CC > CIC / _]σ (sometimes)
• h,x > q / σ[_
• (q > x / _]σ)
• h > ∅ / _]σ
• K > G / l_
• ∅ > O / #_{r}

Kazakh phonology

Kazakh consonant phonemes

	Bilabial		Labio- dental		Dental/ Alveolar		Post- alveolar		Palatal		Velar/ Uvular		Glottal
Plosives	p	b			t	d					k	ɡ
Nasals	m				n						ŋ
Fricatives			(f)	(v)	s	z	ʃ	ʒ	(ɕ)		(x)		h
Affricates									(ʨ)
Tap					ɾ
Approximant	w								j
Lateral approximants					l

Kazakh vowel phonemes

	Front		Back
	Unrounded	Rounded	Unrounded	Rounded
High	ɪ	ʉ	ə	ʊ
Diphthongal	i̯ɪ	u̯ʉ		u̯ʊ
Low	æ		ɑ

proto-Kypchak to Kyrgyz:

• jI > I (sometimes?)
• b > m / V_V (sometimes?)
• resulting in long vowels
  • ɯw/uw > uː
  • iw/yw > yː
  • aw > oː
  • ew, æw > øː
  • G > ∅ / V_V
• affecting mostly persian borrowings
  • æ > Aː
  • Vh > Vː
  • h > ∅
  • ʕ > ∅
• j > dʒ / #_
• x > q
• nj > jn
• ∅ > U / #_{l,r}
• eg > ig

Kyrgyz phonology

Vowels

	front		central1	back
	unrounded	rounded		unrounded	rounded
Close	и [i]	ү [y]		ы [ɯ]	у [u] ю [ju]
mid	э [e] е [je]	ө [ø]			о [o] ё [jo]
open				а [ɑ] я [jɑ]

Consonants

Kirghiz consonant phonemes:

	Bilabial	Dental/ alveolar	Post- alveolar	Palatal	Velar/ uvular
plosive	п б [p] [b]	т д [t] [d]			к г [k]/[q] [g]/[ʁ]
nasal	м [m]	н [n]			ң [ŋ]
trill		р [r]
fricative	(ф) (в) ([f]) ([v])	с з [s] [z]	ш [ʃ]		х [χ]
affricate			ч ж [t​͡ʃ] [d​͡ʒ]
approximant		л [l]		й [j]